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<title>Spatial visualization ability</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Spatial visualization ability</span></span>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="Visual_thinking" title="Visual thinking">Visual thinking</a> or <a href="Spatial_reasoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Spatial reasoning">Spatial reasoning</a>.</div>

<p><b>Spatial visualization ability</b> or <b>visual-spatial ability</b> is the <a href="Ability" title="Ability">ability</a> to mentally manipulate <a href="Two_dimensional" class="mw-redirect" title="Two dimensional">2-dimensional</a> and <a href="Three-dimensional_space" title="Three-dimensional space">3-dimensional</a> figures. It is typically measured with simple <a href="Cognitive_test" title="Cognitive test">cognitive tests</a> and is predictive of user performance with some kinds of user interfaces.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Measurement">Measurement</h2></div>

<p>The cognitive tests used to measure spatial visualization ability including <a href="Mental_rotation" title="Mental rotation">mental rotation</a> tasks like the <a href="Mental_Rotations_Test" title="Mental Rotations Test">Mental Rotations Test</a> or mental cutting tasks like the <a href="Mental_Cutting_Test" title="Mental Cutting Test">Mental Cutting Test</a>; and <a href="Cognitive_tests" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive tests">cognitive tests</a> like the VZ-1 (Form Board), VZ-2 (Paper Folding), and VZ-3 (Surface Development) tests from the Kit of Factor-Reference cognitive tests produced by <a href="Educational_Testing_Service" title="Educational Testing Service">Educational Testing Service</a>. Though the descriptions of spatial visualization and mental rotation sound similar, mental rotation is a particular task that can be accomplished using spatial visualization.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The <a href="Minnesota_Paper_Form_Board_Test" title="Minnesota Paper Form Board Test">Minnesota Paper Form Board Test</a> involves giving participants a shape and a set of smaller shapes which they are then instructed to determine which combination of small shapes will fill the larger shape completely without overlapping. The Paper Folding test involves showing participants a sequence of folds in a piece of paper, through which a set of holes is then punched. The participants must choose which of a set of unfolded papers with holes corresponds to the one they have just seen.

</p><p>The Surface Development test involves giving participants a flat shape with numbered sides and a three-dimensional shape with lettered sides and asking the participants to indicate which numbered side corresponds to which lettered side.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

<p>The construct of spatial visualization ability was first identified as separate from general intelligence in the 20th Century, and its implications for computer system design were identified in the 1980s.

</p><p>In 1987, <a href="Kim_Vicente" title="Kim Vicente">Kim Vicente</a> and colleagues ran a battery of cognitive tests on a set of participants and then determined which cognitive abilities correlated with performance on a computerized information search task. They found that the only significant predictors of performance were <a href="Vocabulary" title="Vocabulary">vocabulary</a> and spatial visualization ability, and that those with high spatial visualization ability were twice as fast to perform the task as those with lower levels of spatial visualization ability.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Age_differences">Age differences</h2></div>

<p>Older adults tend to perform worse on measures of spatial visualization ability than younger adults, and this effect seems to occur even among people who use spatial visualization frequently on the job, such as <a href="Architect" title="Architect">architects</a> and <a href="Surveying" title="Surveying">surveyors</a> (though they still perform better on the measures than others of the same age). It is, however, possible that the types of spatial visualization used by architects are not measured accurately by the tests.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gender_differences">Gender differences</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Sex_differences_in_intelligence#Spatial_ability" title="Sex differences in intelligence">Sex differences in intelligence § Spatial ability</a></div>

<p>According to certain studies, men on average have one standard deviation higher spatial intelligence quotient than women.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This domain is one of the few where clear <a href="Sex_and_intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex and intelligence">sex differences in cognition</a> appear. Researchers at the <a href="University_of_Toronto" title="University of Toronto">University of Toronto</a> say that differences between men and women on some tasks that require spatial skills are largely eliminated after both groups play a video game for only a few hours.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although <a href="Herman_Witkin" title="Herman Witkin">Herman Witkin</a> had claimed women are more "visually dependent" than men,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> this has recently been disputed.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The gender difference in spatial ability was found to be attributed to morphological differences between male and female brains. The parietal lobe is a part of the brain that is recognized to be involved in spatial ability, especially in 2d- and 3d mental rotation. Researchers at the University of Iowa found that the thicker grey matter in the <a href="Parietal_lobe" title="Parietal lobe">parietal lobe</a> of females led to a disadvantage in mental rotations, and that the larger surface areas of the <a href="Parietal_lobe" title="Parietal lobe">parietal lobe</a> of males led to an advantage in mental rotations. The results found by the researches support the notion that gender differences in spatial abilities arose during human evolution such that both sexes cognitively and neurologically developed to behave adaptively. However, the effect of socialization and environment on the difference in spatial ability is still open for debate. <sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Other studies suggest gender differences in spatial thinking may be explained by a <a href="Stereotype_threat" title="Stereotype threat">stereotype threat</a> effect. The fear of fulfilling stereotypes negatively affects the performance which results in a <a href="Self-fulfilling_prophecy" title="Self-fulfilling prophecy">self-fulfilling prophecy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<ul><li><a href="Aphantasia" title="Aphantasia">Aphantasia</a></li>

<li><a href="Baddeley's_model_of_working_memory" title="Baddeley's model of working memory">Baddeley's model of working memory</a></li>

<li><a href="Graphical_perception" title="Graphical perception">Graphical perception</a></li>

<li><a href="Nonverbal_learning_disorder" title="Nonverbal learning disorder">Nonverbal learning disorder</a> (visual-spatial learning disorder)</li>

<li><a href="Proof_without_words" title="Proof without words">Proof without words</a></li>

<li><a href="Spatial_ability" title="Spatial ability">Spatial ability</a></li>

<li><a href="Visual_thinking" title="Visual thinking">Visual thinking</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Inline_citations">Inline citations</h3></div>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFMitchellKent2003" class="citation journal cs1">Mitchell, J.; Kent, L. (2003). "Apparency of contingencies in single panel and pull-down menus". <i>International Journal of Human-Computer Studies</i>. <b>49</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">59–</span>78. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1006%2Fijhc.1998.0200">10.1006/ijhc.1998.0200</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFVicenteHayesWilliges1987" class="citation journal cs1">Vicente, K. J.; Hayes, B. C.; Williges, R. C. (June 1987). "Assaying and isolating individual differences in searching a hierarchical file system". <i><a href="Human_Factors_(journal)" title="Human Factors (journal)">Human Factors</a></i>. <b>29</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">349–</span>359. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F001872088702900308">10.1177/001872088702900308</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0018-7208">0018-7208</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3623569">3623569</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5395157">5395157</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFRobertChevrier2003" class="citation journal cs1">Robert, Michèle; Chevrier, Eliane (October 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3758%2FBF03196134">"Does men's advantage in mental rotation persist when real three-dimensional objects are either felt or seen?"</a>. <i><a href="Memory_%26_Cognition" title="Memory & Cognition">Memory & Cognition</a></i>. <b>31</b> (7): <span class="nowrap">1136–</span>1145. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3758%2FBF03196134">10.3758/BF03196134</a></span>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0090-502X">0090-502X</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14704028">14704028</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFFengSpencePratt2016" class="citation journal cs1">Feng, Jing; Spence, Ian; Pratt, Jay (2016-05-06). "Playing an Action Video Game Reduces Gender Differences in Spatial Cognition". <i><a href="Psychological_Science" title="Psychological Science">Psychological Science</a></i>. <b>18</b> (10): <span class="nowrap">850–</span>855. <a href="CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.392.9474">10.1.1.392.9474</a></span>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-9280.2007.01990.x">10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01990.x</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17894600">17894600</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5885796">5885796</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFWitkinLewisHertzmanMachover1954" class="citation book cs1">Witkin, H. A.; Lewis, H. B.; Hertzman, M.; Machover, K.; Meissner, P. B.; Wapner, S. (1954). <i>Personality through perception: An experimental and clinical study</i>. New York: <a href="Harper_(publisher)" title="Harper (publisher)">Harper</a>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/2660853">2660853</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBarnett-CowanDydeThompsonHarris2010" class="citation journal cs1">Barnett-Cowan, M.; Dyde, R. T.; Thompson, C.; Harris, L. R. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1460-9568.2010.07199.x">"Multisensory determinants of orientation perception: task-specific sex differences"</a>. <i><a href="European_Journal_of_Neuroscience" title="European Journal of Neuroscience">European Journal of Neuroscience</a></i>. <b>31</b> (10): <span class="nowrap">1899–</span>1907. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1460-9568.2010.07199.x">10.1111/j.1460-9568.2010.07199.x</a></span>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1460-9568">1460-9568</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20584195">20584195</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1153800">1153800</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKoscikMoserAndreasenNopoulos2008" class="citation journal cs1">Koscik, Tim; Moser, David J.; Andreasen, Nancy C.; Nopoulos, Peg (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2680714">"Sex Differences in Parietal Lobe Morphology: Relationship to Mental Rotation Performance"</a>. <i>Brain and Cognition</i>. <b>69</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">451–</span>459. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.bandc.2008.09.004">10.1016/j.bandc.2008.09.004</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2680714">2680714</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18980790">18980790</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMcGloneAronson2006" class="citation journal cs1">McGlone, Matthew S.; Aronson, Joshua (2006). "Stereotype threat, identity salience, and spatial reasoning". <i><a href="Journal_of_Applied_Developmental_Psychology" title="Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology">Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology</a></i>. <b>27</b> (5): <span class="nowrap">486–</span>493. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.appdev.2006.06.003">10.1016/j.appdev.2006.06.003</a>.</cite></span>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General_references">General references</h3></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFAlonso1998" class="citation web cs1">Alonso, D. L. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lap.umd.edu/lap/Papers/Dissertations/Alonso_Dissertation_1998/partI.html">"The effects of individual differences in spatial visualization ability on dual-task performance"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2006-05-14</span></span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFDowningMooreBrown2005" class="citation journal cs1">Downing, R. E.; Moore, J. L.; Brown, S. W. (2005). "The effects and interaction of spatial visualization and domain expertise on information seeking". <i><a href="Computers_in_Human_Behavior" title="Computers in Human Behavior">Computers in Human Behavior</a></i>. <b>21</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">195–</span>209. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.chb.2004.03.040">10.1016/j.chb.2004.03.040</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFOzer1987" class="citation journal cs1">Ozer, D. J. (1987). "Personality, intelligence, and spatial visualization: Correlates of mental rotations test performance". <i><a href="Journal_of_Personality_and_Social_Psychology" title="Journal of Personality and Social Psychology">Journal of Personality and Social Psychology</a></i>. <b>53</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">129–</span>134. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0022-3514.53.1.129">10.1037/0022-3514.53.1.129</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3612485">3612485</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSalthouseBabcockSkovronekMitchell1990" class="citation journal cs1">Salthouse, T. A.; Babcock, R. L.; Skovronek, E.; Mitchell, D. R. D.; Palmon, R. (1990). "Age and experience effects in spatial visualization". <i><a href="Developmental_Psychology_(journal)" title="Developmental Psychology (journal)">Developmental Psychology</a></i>. <b>26</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">128–</span>136. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0012-1649.26.1.128">10.1037/0012-1649.26.1.128</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSalthouseMitchell1990" class="citation journal cs1">Salthouse, T. A.; Mitchell, D. R. D (1990). "Effects of age and naturally occurring experience on spatial visualization performance". <i><a href="Developmental_Psychology_(journal)" title="Developmental Psychology (journal)">Developmental Psychology</a></i>. <b>26</b> (5): <span class="nowrap">845–</span>854. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0012-1649.26.5.845">10.1037/0012-1649.26.5.845</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFZhangSalvendy2001" class="citation journal cs1">Zhang, H.; Salvendy, G. (2001). "The implications of visualization ability and structure preview design for web information search tasks". <i>International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction</i>. <b>13</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">75–</span>95. <a href="CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.150.8722">10.1.1.150.8722</a></span>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1207%2FS15327590IJHC1301_5">10.1207/S15327590IJHC1301_5</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1576458">1576458</a>.</cite></li></ul></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

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